PSYCHO

Adrienne Velasquez

Chapter 12 & Chapter 13 notes

Stereotype: a fixed, conventional idea about a group.

Gender: the psychological state of being male or female.

Gender role: a cluster of behaviors that characterizes traditional female or male behaviors within a cultural setting.

Gender-typing: the process by which people acquire a sense of being female or male and acquire the traits considered typical of females or males within a cultural setting.

Gender-schema theory: the view that gender identity plus knowledge of the distribution of behavior patterns into feminine and masculine roles motivate and guide the gender-typing of the child.

Evolution and heredity: psychological gender differences were fashioned by natural selection in response to problems in adaptation that were repeatedly encountered by humans over thousands of generations. The evolutionary process is expressed, for example, through gender differences in mate selection.

Organization of the brain: brain--imaging research suggess that the hemispheres of the brain may be more specialized in males than in females. Use of language is usually based in the left hemisphere, and mean with damage to the left hemisphere are more likely to experience language difficulties than woman with similar damage. Spatial relations is usually more based in the right than the left hemisphere are more likely to have problems with spatial relations than woman with similar injuries.

Sex hormones: sex hormones may “masculinize” or “feminize” the brain during prenatal development by creating predispositions consistent with some gender-role tendencies.

Psychodynamic theory: the acquisition of gender roles is explained in terms of identification. Gender-related behaviors remain flexible until the age of 5 or 6, but resolution of the oedipus and electra complexes at those ages leads to adoption of the preferences and behaviors of parent figures of the same sex.

Learning theories: behaviorists explain gender-typing in terms of the selective reinforcement of behavior patterns deemed appropriate for boys and girls within a given culture. Social cognitive theory asserts that reinforcement encourages gender-typing by providing information as to what other people deem to be appropriate behavior and that children learn much of what is considered masculine or feminine by obsersational learning.

Gender-schema theory: cultures tend to polarize females and males by organizing social life around mutually exclusive gender roles. Children come to accept the polarizing scripts and attempt to construct identities that are consistent with the “proper” script. Children develop a sense of being male or being female about the age of 3 and seek information about what is considered appropriate for them. Children’s self-esteem becomes wrapped up in the ways in which they measure up to the gender schema.

Activating effect: the arousal-producing effects of sex hormones that increase the likelihood of sexual behavior.

Estrus: the periodic sexual excitement of many mammals, as governed by levels of sex hormones.

Pheromone: a chemical secretion detected by other members of the same species that stimulates stereotypical behaviors.

Organizing effects: the directional effect of sex hormones -- for example, along stereotypically masculine or feminine lines.

Sexual orientation: the direction of one’s sexual and romantic interests; that is, whether one is sexually attracted to, and desires to form a romantic relationship with, members of other sex or of one’s own sex.

Homosexual: referring to people who are sexually aroused by, and interested in forming romantic relationships with, people of the same sex.

Attraction: in social psychology, an attitude of liking or disliking (negative attraction)

Matching hypothesis: the view that people tend to choose persons similar to themselves in attractiveness and attitudes in the formation of interpersonal relationships

Reciprocity: in interpersonal attraction: the tendency to return feelings and attitudes that are expressed about us.

Triangular model of love: sternberg’s view that love involves combinations of three components: intimacy, commitment, and passion.

Intimacy: close acquaintance and familiarity; a characteristic of a relationship in which partners share their inmost feelings.

Passion: strong romantic and sexual feelings.

Consummate love: the ideal form of love within Sternberg’s model, which combines passion, intimacy, and commitment.

Romantic love: an intense, positive emotion that involved sexual attraction, feelings of caring, and the belief that one is in love.

Affective shift hypothesis: the view that men and women tend to experience different shifts in the emotions following initiation of sexual activity, such that women feel more love and commitment, and many men experience less love and commitment.

Sexual response cycle: masters and Johnson’s model of sexual response, which consists of four stages or phases.

Vasocongestion: engorgement of blood cessels with blood, which swells the genitals and breasts during sexual arousal.

Myotonia: muscle tension.

Excitement phase: the first phase of the sexual response cycle, which is characterized by muscle tension, increases in the heart rate, and erection in the male and vaginal lubrication in the female.

Clitoris: the female sex organ that is most sensitive to sexual sensation; a smooth, round knob of tissue that is situated above the urethral opening.

Plateau phase: the second phase of the sexual response cycle, which is characterized by increases in vasocongestion, muscle tension, heart rate, and blood pressure in preparation for orgasm.
Ejaculation: the process of propelling seminal fluid (semen) from the penis.

Orgasm: the height or climax of sexual excitement, involving involuntary muscle contractions, release of sexual tensions, and, usually, subjective feelings of pleasure.

Resolution phase: the fourth phase of the sexual response cycle, during which the body gradually returns to its prearoused state.

Refractory period: in the sexual response cycle, a period of time following orgasm during which an individual is not responsive to sexual stimulation

Sexual dysfunction: a persistent or recurrent problem in becoming sexually aroused or reaching orgasm.

Hypoactive sexual desire disorder: a sexual dysfunction in which people lack sexual desire.

Female sexual arousal disorder: a sexual dysfunction in which females fail to become adequately sexually aroused to engage in sexual intercourse.

Male erectile disorder: a sexual dysfunction in which males fail to obtain erections that are adequate for sexual intercourse.

Orgasm disorder: a sexual dysfunction in which people have persistent or recurrent problems in reaching orgasm.

Premature ejaculation: ejaculation that occurs before the couple are satisfied with the length of sexual relations.

Dyspareunia: a sexual dysfunction characterized by persistent or recurrent pain during sexual intercourse (from roots meaning “badly paired.”

Vaginismus: a sexual dysfunction characterized by involuntary contraction of the muscle surrounding the vagina, preventing entry by the penis or making painful entry.

Performance anxiety: anxiety concerning one’s ability to perform, especially when performance may be evaluated by other people.

Sex therapy: a collective term for short-term cognitive--behavioral models for treatment of sexual behavior therapy techniques.
Sexual harassment: deliberate or repeated unwanted comments, gestures, or physical contact of a sexual nature.



CHAPTER 13

Health psychology: the field of psychology that studies the relationships between psychological factors (e.g. attitudes, beliefs, situational influences, and behavior patterns) and the prevention and treatment of physical illness.

Pathogen: a microscopic organism (e.g. bacterium or virus_ that can cause disease.

Stress: the demand that is made on an organism to adapt.

Eustress: stress that is healthful

Daily hassles: notable daily conditions and experiences that are threatening or harmful to a person’s well-being.

Uplifts: notable pleasant daily conditions and experiences.

Conflict: being torn in different directions by opposing motives. Feelings produced by being in conflict.

Approach-approach conflict: a type of conflict in which the goals that produce opposing motives are positive and within reach.

Avoidance-avoidance conflict: a type of conflict in which the goals are negative, but avoidance of one requires approaching the other.

Approach-avoidance conflict: a type of conflict in which the same goal produces approach and avoidance motives.

Multiple approach-avoidance conflict: a type of conflict in which each of a number of goals produces approach and avoidance motives.

Catastrophize: to interpret negative events as being disastrous; to “blow out of proportion”

Type A behavior: behavior characterized by a sense of time urgency, competitiveness, and hostility.

Self-efficacy expectations: our beliefs that we can bring about desired changes through our own efforts.

Psychological hardiness: a cluster of traits that buffer stress and are characterized by commitment, challenge, and control.

Locus of control: the place (locus) to which an individual attributes control over the receiving of reinforcers--either inside or outside the self.

Internals: people who perceive the ability to attain reinforcements as being largely within themselves.

Externals: people who perceive the ability to attain reinforcements as being largely outside themselves.

General adaptation syndrome (GAS) selye’s term for a hpothesized three-stage response to stress.

Alarm reaction: the first stage of the GAS which is triggered by the impact of a stressor and characterized by sympathetic activity.

Fight-or-flight reaction: an innate adaptive response to the perfecption of danger.

Resistance stage: the second stage of the GAS, characterized by prolonged sympathetic activity in an effort to restore lost energy and repair damage. Also called the adaptation stage.

Exhaustion stage: the third stage of the GAS characterized by weakened resistance and possible deterioration.

Immune system: the system of the body that recognized and destroys foreign agents (antigens) that invade the body.

Leukocytes: while blood cells

Antigen: a substance that stimulates the body to mount an immune system response to it.

Antibodies: substances formed by white blood cells that recognize and destroy antigens.

Inflammation: increased blood flow to an injured area of the body, resulting in redness, warmth, and an increased supply of white blood cells.

Psychoneuroimmunology: the field that studies the relationships between psychological factors and the functioning of the immune system.

Migraine headaches: throbbing headaches that are connected with changed in the supple of blood to the head.

Serum cholesterol: cholesterol in the blood.

Hypertension: high blood pressure.

Socioeconomic status: one’s social and financial level, as indicated by measures such as income, level of education, and occupational status. Abbreviated :SES